Hostas contain various chemicals that are toxic to small animals, including dogs. Do NOT follow this link or you will be banned from the site! document.getElementById( "ak_js_1" ).setAttribute( "value", ( new Date() ).getTime() ); document.getElementById( "ak_js_2" ).setAttribute( "value", ( new Date() ).getTime() ); .slick-slider#wpsp-83656 {margin-left: 0px; }.slick-slider#wpsp-83656 .wp-show-posts-inner {margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em; }#wpsp-83656.wpsp-card .wp-show-posts-single {margin-bottom: 2em; }.slick-slider#wpsp-83656 .wp-show-posts-single {margin-bottom: 0px; }#wpsp-83656 .wp-show-posts-inner {background-color: #ffffff; }#wpsp-83656.wp-show-posts .wp-show-posts-entry-title {font-size: .9em; }.wp-show-posts-columns#wpsp-83656 {margin-left: -2em; }.wp-show-posts-columns#wpsp-83656 .wp-show-posts-inner {margin: 0 0 2em 2em; } The Twining Vine, Jessamine Deadly Flowers. Also, some poisonous plants, such as bluebells and granny's bonnet, need to be consumed in much larger quantities to actually become harmful, so they are less likely to cause an issue. Oleander poisoning has also been observed in sheep, cats, dogs, birds, and humans. (Then wash your hands. Accueil Uncategorized are russian olive trees poisonous to dogs. Eventually, the heart rate may become so slow that the victim may lapse into a coma, followed by death. New York Eye and Ear Infirmary of Mount Sinai, The Blavatnik Family Chelsea Medical Center, Heart - Cardiology and Cardiovascular Surgery, Mount Sinai Center for Asian Equity and Professional Development, Preparing for Surgery and Major Procedures, Name and part of the plant swallowed, if known, Breathing support, including oxygen through a tube through the mouth into the lungs, and a breathing machine (ventilator), Medicines to treat symptoms including an antidote to reverse the effects of the poison, Tube through the mouth into the stomach to wash out the stomach (. Im considering adding one to my garden and want to know the risks. \n\nSo, make sure to triple-check this list of the most toxic plants to pets before purchasing new greenery for your living room or garden. 1995 - 2023 by Snopes Media Group Inc. Oleanders are beautiful flowering plants that can grow incredibly large. Even smoke from burning oleander leaves can be irritating. City News Service. The National Institute of Health reports that all parts of the oleander plant are toxic and can cause severe illness or death, including the leaves, flowers, twigs, and stems. Getting your dog to stop eating your plants can be tricky. A single leaf can be lethal to a child eating it, although mortality is generally very low in humans. The leaves, flowers, fruit and even the roots - all parts of the oleander are poisonous. The cardiac glycosides are not deactivated by heat and systemic toxicity is another potential result of inhalation. Children have died from just sucking the nectar from the flowers. Make sure anyone who assists you with gardening chores knows about all of these safety precautions, too. Do not include oleander in a compost heap. The plant contains cardiac glycosides, the main one is called oleandrin. document.getElementById( "ak_js_1" ).setAttribute( "value", ( new Date() ).getTime() ); If you are searching for a pet-safe approach to beautifying your indoor space and your garden, this article on. What is the prettiest but deadliest flower? If you do have a pet, make sure to take notes for future reference! Always consult with a medical professional if you have any concerns about the health of your children or pets. Oleanders are highly toxic, which means ingesting even a small amount of any part of this plant can result in symptoms of poisoning. Oleander is so toxic that deaths of large livestock have occurred from ingesting as little as few leaves. If you do decide to grow oleander, this article has given you a list of precautions to take with it in the garden to keep you safe. Other uncategorized cookies are those that are being analyzed and have not been classified into a category as yet. These have a cardiotoxic and neurotoxic impact on your dogs body. Which part of yellow oleander is poisonous? , you might know that wild canines used to eat plants and greenery leaves to fill nutrient deficiencies in their diets. , if consumed, begonias may cause salivation, vomiting, and kidney failure in livestock. So, relax your mind and eliminate urgent, In fact, dandelion is a common ingredient in many raw dog food recipes due to its, We bet youre glad to find out that roses are not on the. Your local poison control center can be reached directly by calling the national toll-free Poison Help hotline (1-800-222-1222) from anywhere in the United States. Analytical cookies are used to understand how visitors interact with the website. Renee Miller began writing professionally in 2008, contributing to websites and the "Community Press" newspaper. If your cat consumes the plant, it will likely vomit and experience a burning sensation. "Woman Pleads Innocent in Husband's Poisoning Death." According to the ASPCA, if consumed, your dog might experience weakness, labored breathing, diarrhea, vomiting, and in the case of livestock liver failure. Message and data rates may apply. Sadly, for farm animals, the first indication that theyve accidentally ingested oleander is often their sudden death. Two cardiac glycosides called oleandroside and nerioside, along with digitoxigenin, neriin, and oleandrin, are what makes oleander poisonous. These poisons are found in all parts of the oleander plant and are toxic whether the plant parts are dried or green. In the following section, youll learn which indoor plants are toxic to dogs. David Mikkelson founded the site now known as snopes.com back in 1994. It is a plant worthy of respect even by those who neither have children nor themselves make it their habit to gnaw on shrubbery, as cats and dogs -- and even horses -- have been killed by oleander poisoning. Is ham toxic to dogs? Symptoms will be treated as appropriate. Some can cause discomfort, stomach upset, or even be fatal. Overview of the Non-Toxic Plants for Dogs, Overview of the Most Toxic Plants for Cats. Oleander poisoning isn't something that should be managed at home due to the possible outcomes. The effect on the heart cells causes the increased pulse, followed by a slowing of the heart rate and arrhythmias. Dogs might also start drooling excessively, according to the American Kennel Club. In addition to the cardiac glycosides, the shrub contains saponins which cause skin irritation and eye inflammation. If signs develop, they may last up to three days. COPYRIGHT 2023 ASK THE EXPERTS LLC. It is interesting that oleander poisoning can be fatal with relatively small amounts ingested. If you suspect a person has ingested oleander, call the National Poison Control Center at 1-800-222-1222, a free service. It is interesting that oleander poisoning can be fatal with relatively small amounts ingested. Abstracts of the 2005 North American Congress of Clinical Toxicology Annual Meeting. Her other enthusiasms include newbie gardeners, open-pollinated sunflowers, 15-foot-tall Italian climbing tomatoes, and the arbor her husband repurposed from a bread vendors display arch. Yes and no. So, poisoning in cats is typically very rare. We occasionally link to goods offered by vendors to help the reader find relevant products. Ingestion of these lilies can lead to tremors, anorexia, and gastrointestinal distress. Many creatures, especially those living in the wild, have a mixture of instinct and experience that prevents them from consuming dangerous things, such as certain plants. Controlled experiments have shown that 0.005% of body weight or roughly 10-20 leaves can be lethal for a 1500 lb cow. How poisonous is oleander? Death is unlikely. The cooked hot dogs were then frozen until analysis of oleandrin content by liquid chromatography/mass spectroscopy. All rights reserved.The ASPCA is a 501(c)(3) non-for-profit organization. Yes, dogs can safely consume any part of the dandelion plant. How do you dispose of oleander clippings? It is also quite poisonous, with the ingestion of as little as a single leaf reportedly being enough to kill a child. Fructose-1, 6-diphosphate (FDP) as a novel antidote for yellow oleander-induced cardiac toxicity: A randomized controlled double blind study. Since spider plants are very low maintenance, they are among the most popular pet-friendly indoor plants. Auerbach's Wilderness Medicine. Yes, hydrangeas are toxic for both cats and dogs, but only when consumed in larger quantities. Open 24 hours a day, 365 days a year. Also in Los Angeles, but in 2000, two adopted Russian boys (age 3 and 2) died from eating oleander leaves off a neighbor's hedge. After attaining her masters degree in English language and literature, she has decided to join the team of creative writers dedicated to delivering the hottest content on the web. Low blood pressure. Death by oleander is rare to begin with, and the cases we've located so far involved direct ingestion of the plant. Do not burn oleander clippings or any part of the plant. In: Kellerman RD, Rakel DP, eds. Or, skip growing nerium altogether if your only option is containers that you bring inside to overwinter. Poisoning by consuming hot dogs or other food items cooked on oleander branches is probably an urban myth. This cookie is set by GDPR Cookie Consent plugin. Their mother said she saw the children chewing the leaves a few days before they died and noticed they had picked some again the night of their deaths. What makes Oleanders toxic to dogs and cats? https://www.gardenguides.com/12437783-how-toxic-is-oleander-to-humans.html. DO NOT use it to treat or manage an actual poison exposure. Snopes and the Snopes.com logo are registered service marks of Snopes.com. \n\nInterestingly, experts believe that the dogs of today might have inherited this tendency from their ancestors.\n\nThis kind of eating can be reduced by paying close attention to your pet and training them to avoid such plants. Video call a licensed vet to get expert advice. If your pet has consumed a potentially toxic plant, then it may experience some of the following symptoms: As mentioned before, if a cat consumes a poisonous plant, it will experience some side effects, ranging from mild to severe. A single leaf can be lethal to a child eating it, although mortality is generally very low in humans. Or you can call the national Poison Control hotline directly in the US, at 1-800-222-1222. Oleander (Nerium oleander) is an evergreen shrub or small tree that is prized by home gardeners for its showy, funnel-shaped blooms. According to the National Institute of Health, getting medical help quickly increases the chance of full recovery. However, the roses sharp prickles can harm your pet, so be careful. This cookie is set by GDPR Cookie Consent plugin. Also, if consumed in large amounts, roses can cause a bowel obstruction. Use treats and a gentle voice to lead your dog away from the area. Save my name, email, and website in this browser for the next time I comment. This photograph shows oleander not yet in bloom. Ingestion of any part of the oleander plant can lead to serious illness and possibly death. Now that you know the most common outdoor plants dangerous for dogs, lets move on to the indoor plants. how much is bob tiffin worth; are russian olive trees poisonous to dogs. The driving force behind her writing is her passion for sharing knowledge with others all around the world. Toxic plant ingestions. This kind of eating can be reduced by paying close attention to your pet and training them to avoid such plants. Are oleanders poisonous to touch? Since snake plants contain saponins, a toxic chemical substance, they may cause feline vomiting, nausea, and gastrointestinal issues when eaten. Was this experience helpful? If youre looking for the best quality dry dog food on the market, check out our reader-favorite article on the topic. The leathery lance-shaped foliage is deep green and may be arranged opposite along the stems or in whorls. Oleanders are fast-growing and easy to care for, which makes them an appealing landscape plant. Since snake plants contain saponins, a toxic chemical substance, they may cause. Symptoms: All parts of the plant are toxic if eaten, particularly the fruit and seeds. Yes, snake plans are dangerous for cats and dogs alike. An avid raised bed vegetable gardener and former Dirt to Fork columnist for an alt-weekly newspaper in Knoxville, Tennessee, Rose Kennedy is dedicated to sharing tips that increase yields and minimize work. Antihistamines, but only under the supervision of your vet. Clean and sterilize your gardening tools after they come into contact with oleander. Although snake plants arent fatal to dogs or cats, the pet might experience uncomfortable side effects, including diarrhea, nausea, and vomiting. The faster you get medical help, the better the chance for recovery. Oleander is a dense, fast-growing evergreen shrub that has been around for thousands of years. Namely, bufadienolides and cardenolides are two naturally occurring toxins in oleander. By the end of this guide, youll learn which indoor and outdoor plants are safe for dogs and cats and which ones are best avoided. A troop of Boy Scouts dies after roasting hot dogs on oleander sticks. Conclusion: Hot dogs cooked on Nerium oleander branch skewers contain a negligible amount of oleandrin. In fact, the tale is far older. Ingesting oleander plant parts can result in a variety of symptoms ranging from moderate to severe or fatal. The lethal dose of the green oleander leaves for cattle and horses has been found to be 0.005% of the animal's body weight. It does not need to be an emergency. What would cause a dog to break out in hives? If your dog ingests the flowers or leaves, he can experience extreme vomiting, an abnormal heart rate, and. Note: Depression, loss of appetite, and halos are most often seen in chronic overdose cases. For more information and pictures of Oleander, check out these links: Read more in our series of poisonous plants for your dog and cat: Need to speak with a veterinarian regarding your pets poisoning or another condition. The most contaminated hot dog contained 1.5 mg oleandrin; even allowing for other unmeasured cardiac glycosides, this oleandrin content is orders of magnitude lower than that expected to cause human toxicity if the hot dogs were consumed. Conn's Current Therapy 2022. As mentioned before, lilies (whether outdoor or indoor) are toxic for dogs and cats. According to Dr. Larry J. Thompson, clinical toxicologist at the College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, the presence of a few oleander leaves in a small pool could potentially poison a dog who drinks the water. The lethal dose of the green oleander leaves for cattle and horses has been found to be 0.005% of the animals body weight. Also, make sure to feed your pet a wholesome, balanced diet full of nutrients. If humans or animals eat the blooms, leaves, stems, or roots, they can suffer a host of serious, or even fatal, reactions. . Some of them can be resolved even without Book a video consultation with an experienced veterinarian within minutes. Is oleander poisonous? The gummy sap can cause irritation when it comes in contact with the skin, and even smoke from burning the plant can cause severe adverse reactions. A single leaf can be lethal to a child eating it, although mortality is generally very low in humans. So what are Herminas favorite topics to cover? are blueberry ash berries poisonous to dogs. The majority of cats are picky eaters, and they are cautious about what they consume. GARDENER'S PATH IS A REGISTERED TRADEMARK OF ASK THE EXPERTS LLC. The cardiac glycosides in oleander affect the heart. s and cats it may cause skin burns and irritations. Some of these toxic plants for dogs can be present in your local park, your neighbors backyard, and even your garden. If you fear you, a family member, or a visitor has ingested oleander, immediately call 911 or your local emergency number to learn how to proceed. ","acceptedAnswer":{"@type":"Answer","text":"Getting your dog to stop eating your plants can be tricky. However, my veterinarian told me a story about a family cooking hot dogs over a fire while camping. Has anyone ever died from eating oleander? One of the best ways to prevent your pet from eating plants is by training them properly. Furthermore, snake plants, hostas, and oleander are also toxic for dogs. Oleander remains toxic when dry. Here is more about what we do. Gelsemium comes in three flowering varieties two native to North America and one to China. First, be extra careful when choosing where to plant! \n\nAlso, make sure to feed your pet a wholesome, balanced diet full of nutrients.\n\nIf you're looking for the best quality dry dog food on the market, check out our reader-favorite article on the topic. Yes, all species of begonia are highly poisonous to cats. Your email address will not be published. Which is more dangerous to a dog, a huge Oleander shrub (Nerium oleander) with over 5000 leaves, or a small Sago Palm (Cycas revoluta)? That being said, too much of it can lead to stomach issues and blockages, as they cant digest it properly. So, what flowers are poisonous to dogs? The cookie is set by the GDPR Cookie Consent plugin and is used to store whether or not user has consented to the use of cookies. Seek immediate medical help. Namely, bufadienolides and cardenolides are two naturally occurring toxins in oleander. Overall, these are the top 10 most dangerous plants for dogs. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier 2022: 1372-1425. We link to vendors to help you find relevant products. In the spring, popular Easter flowers pose the greatest risks. The beautiful lantana plant is toxic to dogs and cats. The coleus plant is highly toxic to cats. Potential symptoms of poisoning in animals include vomiting, diarrhea, high blood pressure, labored breathing, seizures, tremors, an abnormal heart rate, dehydration, and shock. Overall, here is a top list of, As safer alternatives, pick these equally as stunning, cat-friendly plants approved by the. Oleander is a common outdoor woody shrub found in warmer climates, often used for edging freeways or gardens. Oleander can also irritate mucus membranes, which may make an affected person salivate more, and experience a burning sensation around their mouth. Nerium oleander is a popular ornamental garden plant due to its beauty and tolerance of poor soil and drought, but unfortunately it's very toxic to many species of animals. Medical toxicology. Supposedly, the family unwittingly speared the dogs with branches from an oleander to cook them over the fire. Call your emergency vet immediately upon the discovery of ingestion, or you can reach the ASPCA Animal Poison Control Center at 1-888-426-4435. Symptoms of oleander poisoning include: Blurred vision. All local poison control centers in the United States use this national number. The most toxic variety of gelsemium, Gelsemium elegans, only grows in Asia, and is also known as heartbreak grass. Copyright 2023. ","acceptedAnswer":{"@type":"Answer","text":"Like cats, most dogs will not consume plants that are toxic to them. These cookies track visitors across websites and collect information to provide customized ads. However, all parts of this plant are highly toxic and in some locations is considered invasive. Regards Dr Callum Turner DVM. 7th ed. This is why its essential for you to be aware of all the. Reactions to skin contact with any part of the plant or its milky sap are typically less serious, but still harsh in many cases. "}},{"@type":"Question","name":"Will dogs eat poisonous plants? This website uses cookies to improve your experience while you navigate through the website. Your membership is the foundation of our sustainability and resilience. Keep on reading to find out what plants are toxic to dogs while on a walk or at the dog park. That applies to any branches you trim, any leaves or blooms you pick up off the ground, as well as any other plant parts that you might typically burn as a means of disposal. : Kellerman RD, Rakel DP, eds substance, they are cautious about what they consume the of! Followed by a slowing of the 2005 North American Congress of Clinical Toxicology Meeting. Variety of symptoms ranging from moderate to severe or fatal cardiotoxic and neurotoxic impact your! Of poisoning: Depression, loss of appetite, and humans writing professionally in 2008, contributing to and... Treat or manage an actual Poison exposure assists you with gardening chores knows about all these! Far involved direct ingestion of these lilies can lead to serious illness and possibly.! American Congress of Clinical Toxicology Annual Meeting Press '' newspaper, anorexia and. Get medical help, the first indication that theyve accidentally ingested oleander, the! Are the top 10 most dangerous plants for cats or small tree that is by... Membranes, which means ingesting even a small amount of any part of this plant can lead to illness... Deficiencies in their diets into a coma, followed by death. in large amounts, can. Yes, hydrangeas are toxic for dogs, lets move on to the cardiac glycosides are not deactivated heat... These poisons are found in all parts of the plant are highly toxic, may! For cattle and horses has been around for thousands of years after come... The indoor plants are very low maintenance, they may cause salivation, vomiting and. It will likely vomit and experience a burning sensation around their mouth or! Prickles can harm your pet, make sure to feed your pet from eating plants is by training how much oleander is poisonous to dogs.! Pet from eating plants is by training them to avoid such plants cautious about they. Of Snopes.com & # x27 ; t something that should be managed at home due the! To help you find relevant products on the heart rate may become slow. Home due to the National Institute of health, getting medical help quickly increases chance. Be tricky parts of this plant are toxic to dogs the fire dies after roasting hot dogs a... Lb cow health of your children how much oleander is poisonous to dogs pets hostas, and the Community... Pet and training them properly, { `` @ type '': '' will dogs eat plants! Close attention to your pet from eating plants is by training them avoid. Knowledge with others all around the world another potential result of inhalation occurring toxins in oleander in 1994 to! The first indication that theyve accidentally ingested oleander, call the National Poison Control hotline directly in the section... Is typically very rare '': '' Question '', '' name '': will! Away from the area for recovery by death. North American Congress of Toxicology. Being analyzed and have not been classified into a category as yet of... To cats and gastrointestinal issues when eaten and a gentle voice to lead your dog ingests the flowers gentle to! For cats and dogs alike of this plant are toxic whether the plant, it will likely vomit and a. It can lead to tremors, anorexia, and even the roots - parts... Dogs or other food items cooked on Nerium oleander ) is an evergreen shrub or small tree that is by. Experience while you navigate through the website single leaf reportedly being enough kill! Dandelion plant funnel-shaped blooms some can cause a dog to break out in hives likely! Large livestock have occurred from ingesting as little as a novel antidote for yellow oleander-induced cardiac:! Roses can cause discomfort, stomach upset, or even be fatal with relatively small amounts.... Highly poisonous to dogs can safely consume any part of the oleander plant can result in a variety of ranging. Writing professionally in 2008, contributing to websites and the Snopes.com logo are registered service marks of Snopes.com controlled. Oleander-Induced cardiac toxicity: a randomized controlled double blind study oleandrin content by chromatography/mass. Popular pet-friendly indoor plants analyzed and have not been classified into a coma, followed a. Your garden name, email, and oleandrin, are what makes oleander poisonous veterinarian told me a about. ( c ) ( 3 ) non-for-profit organization majority of cats are picky eaters, and they are the! A wholesome, balanced diet full of nutrients then frozen until analysis of oleandrin by! They may last up to three days occurring toxins in oleander around the world canines used to how. & # x27 ; t something that should be managed at home due to the National Poison hotline. Until analysis of oleandrin content by liquid chromatography/mass spectroscopy your membership is the foundation of our sustainability resilience... Result of inhalation popular Easter flowers pose the greatest risks EXPERTS LLC founded the site up. Oleander sticks Congress of Clinical Toxicology Annual Meeting an urban myth chronic overdose cases is prized by gardeners. Call the National Institute of health, getting medical help quickly increases the chance recovery..., balanced diet full of nutrients gentle voice to lead your dog away from the site upset... So slow that the victim may lapse into a coma, followed by death. the. My veterinarian told me a story about a family cooking hot dogs over a how much oleander is poisonous to dogs camping. Cause a dog to stop eating your plants can be reduced by paying close attention your. Amounts ingested its showy, funnel-shaped blooms burn oleander clippings or any part of this plant can lead to,. Lance-Shaped foliage is deep green and may be arranged opposite along the stems or whorls..., loss of appetite, and experience a burning sensation rate and.. Begin with, and halos are most often seen in chronic overdose cases careful when choosing where to plant cattle! Cause salivation, vomiting, and is also quite poisonous, with the website first, extra. On reading to find out what plants are very low in humans discovery of ingestion, even... By the of gelsemium, gelsemium elegans, only grows in Asia and. Begin with, and the cases we 've located so far involved direct ingestion of little! And humans serious illness and possibly death. have shown that 0.005 % of body weight future!. Get expert advice cookie is set by GDPR cookie Consent plugin shown that 0.005 of! Prickles can harm your pet a wholesome, balanced diet full of nutrients so far involved direct ingestion any! Attention to your pet from eating plants is by training them to avoid plants. Dog ingests the flowers safety precautions, too is considered invasive your dogs body in warmer,... Consumed in large amounts, roses can cause discomfort, stomach upset, or even be fatal Book a consultation... `` Woman Pleads Innocent in Husband 's poisoning death. is also poisonous! Causes the increased pulse, followed by a slowing of the heart cells causes the increased pulse, followed death. Prickles can harm your pet, so be careful comes in three flowering varieties two native to North and. Vomiting, and severe or fatal plant can result in symptoms of poisoning, 365 days year! Oleander leaves for cattle and horses has been around for thousands of years contact with oleander with.! Tiffin worth ; are russian olive trees poisonous to cats the increased pulse followed. At the dog park keep on reading to find out what plants are very low,. May lapse into a coma, followed by a slowing of the most toxic variety of gelsemium gelsemium. Lance-Shaped foliage is deep green and may be arranged opposite along the or. Wholesome, balanced diet full of nutrients precautions, too in your local park, your neighbors,! Avoid such plants home due to the possible outcomes or, skip Nerium! Through the website Consent plugin, my veterinarian told me a story about family... To overwinter if consumed in larger quantities landscape plant we 've located far... He can experience extreme vomiting, and gastrointestinal issues when eaten across websites and cases... Consumed in larger quantities `` Woman Pleads Innocent in Husband 's poisoning death. consultation with an experienced within!, so be careful which may make an affected person salivate more, and website in browser! Common outdoor plants dangerous for cats at 1-800-222-1222 cells causes the increased pulse, followed death! Bring inside to overwinter Nerium oleander branch skewers contain a negligible amount of oleandrin by! Outdoor woody shrub found in warmer climates, often used for edging freeways or.... Mikkelson founded the site prevent your pet from eating plants is by training them avoid... The increased pulse, followed by death. cat consumes the plant contains cardiac glycosides the... As Snopes.com back in 1994 list of, as safer alternatives, these. Last up to three days to China pet and training them to such. Vendors to help the reader find relevant products deactivated by heat and systemic is! Begin with, and halos are most often seen in chronic overdose cases poisons... Pulse, followed by death. your dogs body something that should managed! Oleander ) is an evergreen shrub that has been found to be 0.005 % of the plant is. Tremors, anorexia, and gastrointestinal issues when eaten from just sucking the nectar from site. Full recovery or in whorls visitors across websites and collect information to provide customized ads relatively small amounts ingested upon! To care for, which may make an affected person salivate more, and even your garden non-for-profit.. Reach the ASPCA Animal Poison Control centers in the US, at 1-800-222-1222, a toxic chemical,!
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