The Reformation had begun thirteen years earlier, just before Charles became king of Spain. The election day became the starting date permanently with Sigismund. The Italian Wars began in 1494, when Charles was asked by the Sforzas, the family that ruled the city-state of Milan, to join them and Swiss mercenaries in seizing Florence from the Medici family (see "Milan" in Chapter 2). During his last days, some of his advisers attempted to give the throne to Jane Grey (15371554), the king's distant relative and a supporter of Protestant causes. Soon Catherine, like Anne Boleyn, was found guilty of adultery; she was beheaded in 1542. They used the execution of Louis XVI. Prussia won and directly annexed some of the German states that had sided . The result was absolute chaos, as leaders of states vied for more power and larger territories. Undaunted by Francis's new partnership, Charles launched a successful assault against the French king's Turkish ally in the Mediterranean Sea. He explored the St. Lawrence Rivergateway to the Great Lakesbut his voyages never took him farther west than the site of modernday Montreal, Canada. Records such as reports from the Christian Council of Elvira in 313 show that Christians immediately began pressuring Jews to convert to Christianity. In Russian history, what nickname was the first Tzar given for their tyranny? The Spanish then invaded France, taking Toulon and other parts of southeast France. The young woman would not marry a non-Catholic, however, so James turned to France, another Catholic nation. His successor, Louis XIV (16381715; ruled 16431715), was only five years old. In 771, Charlemagne became king of the Franks, a Germanic tribe in present-day Belgium, France, Luxembourg, the . One of the most powerful Capetians was William II (c. 10281087), the duke of Normandy, a duchy in northwestern France. At the time, many believed that a "Northwest Passage," a water route to the Indies, could be found either around or through the North American continent. During her long reign Renaissance ideas dominated literature. When Governors no longer have a Life Token to use up, answering incorrectly will be viewed as being disquali ed. They now supported Charles, hoping they could dominate a foreign monarch. Initially reluctant to become involved, Elizabeth finally accepted the argument that England, as the chief Protestant power in Europe, had an obligation to aid Protestants elsewhere. Claiming the French crown, he sent troops to aid the Spanish in 1512 and was determined to invade France. Francis's reign had an impressive beginning. In the years after that, they were even better. In one year alone, Francis had spent 5.5 million livres (the French unit of currency at that time) on the war. Alba had Egmont and Hoorn executed along with perhaps twelve thousand other rebels. Charles also continued the war against France in Italy. Trait 3: +20% Hospital Recovery Rate. Civilization Popularity Ranking: His childhood was remarkable because of his enlightened, humanist education. Which of the following is considered a metallic resource? Ferdinand and Isabella first waged war against the Moorish kingdom of Granada, on the southern end of the peninsula. The Visigoths were a nomadic Germanic tribe which flourished in Europe during the time of the Romans. A nationalistic spirit began to emerge among the English, however, with a campaign launched by King Henry V, whose everyday language was English. Ferdinand and Isabella ascended to the throne as the Catholic Monarchs of Spain in 1474. Ferdinand therefore had himself proclaimed regent (interim ruler) of Castile, possibly expecting to have some influence on Joanna once she and Philip arrived from Brussels to take the throne. However, the date of retrieval is often important. As the Renaissance moved north of Italy in the fifteenth century, northern and central Europe was even more fragmented. The decision to seek a water route resulted in one of the most explosive and significant eras in the history of the world. Most chose to renounce their vows. During the Lancastrian War, the English allied with Philip III (called Philip the Good; 13961467, ruled 141967), the duke of Burgundy, to conquer most of northern and western France. The three main conflicts were the Edwardian War (134060), won by English king Edward III; the Caroline War (136989), won by French king Charles V (13371380; ruled 136480); and the Lancastrian War (141535), won by French king Charles VII (14031461; ruled 142261). They were especially critical of "popish," or Catholic, features of the Anglican Church. Surrounded by young playmates, he learned the strategy and methods of Renaissance warfare and showed signs of unusual talent at the craft. By 1615, the Dutch possessed the Spice Islands and were forced to face the threat of the British East India Company. He sought aid from the army in Ireland and from King James VI of Scotland. France and Germany were both once part of what Kingdom? While Spanish forces were defeating the Ottomans, Philip was contending with the Revolt of the Netherlands, which broke out in 1566 (see "Netherlands" in Chapter 4). They were at once the lay face of the church, the spiritual heart of civic government, and the social kin who claimed the allegiance of peers and the obedience of subordinates. In 1585 she openly supported the Dutch rebels. The Kingdom of Italy was created in. 1624 he arranged for Charles to marry Henrietta Maria (16091669), the sister of King Louis XIII of France. For example, the magnetic compass and other advances made it possible for navigators, who had previously been forced to rely on the Sun and the stars, to travel in bad weather and poor climates. The Renaissance spirit reached England in the fifteenth century, after the Hundred Years' War, a conflict with France over the control of the French throne. Once he had returned to France, however, Francis declared the Treaty of Madrid to be null and void. Especially strong kings were Louis VI (called the Fat; 10811137; ruled 110837) and his son Louis VII (c. 11201180; ruled 113780). During the invasion Charles's troops had sacked Rome and stormed Clement's residence. This policy continued for more than twenty years. troops at the famous Battle of the Spurs (1513), in which the French made a hasty retreat, leaving several towns in northern France under English control. No action was taken, however, because the church wanted to win converts and noblemen did not want to lose Moriscan laborers who worked on their estates. By this time the French were also consumed by a nationalistic spirit. In 1441 an expedition returned from the Rio de Ouro region of Africa with a cargo of captured slaves, thus beginning the African slave trade, which continued into the nineteenth century. There were two main dynasties that ruled the Franks during the Middle Ages, the Merovingian Dynasty and the Carolingian Dynasty. After Henry's death in 1460, the expeditions continued, but the African expeditions were yielding few riches other than slave cargoes. Among the reforms they demanded were simplified services, less elaborate church music, simpler vestments (robes worn by clergymen), and more preaching. In 1630 the Netherlands seized some coastal towns in northern Brazil. She was sold to the English, who then turned her over to the Inquisition, an official church court appointed to punish heretics (those who violate church laws), at the French city of Rouen. Becoming the king of Bavaria in 825, Louis the German gradually extended his power over all of Carolingian Germany. He made peace with Spain, then attempted to arrange a marriage between his second son Charles (King Charles I; 16001649; ruled 162549) and the daughter of the Spanish king, Philip III. Unlike Asia, Africa's kingdoms had never allowed Europeans to penetrate the interior. Most German intellectuals were at first in sympathy with the new order in France, hoping that the defeat of royal absolutism in western Europe would lead to its decline in central Europe as well. States occupied by the Holy Roman Empire also came under the rule of Spain and the Habsburgs. A new royal house, the Tudors, began with this marriage. Thus, Olivares's usefulness had come to an end. Just as Philip was on the verge of reclaiming the northern provinces of the Netherlands, his attention was diverted by war with England. When King Philip III died in 1621, the decline of Spain was becoming more evident. Their adviser was Toms de Torquemada (pronounced tor-kay-MAH-thah; 14201498), a Dominican monk (member of a religious order founded by Saint Dominic). democratic rule. The consolidation of the kingdom of France under one ruler was now complete. (During the Renaissance, the term "prince" referred to a military and political ruler, including a king.) The Iberians were followed by the Carthaginians. Some collections remained in cathedrals that had earlier been associated with monasteries, like Canterbury and Dudiam, while others were acquired by Oxford and Cambridge universities or by private collectors. He began organizing the famous "Invincible Armada," a fleet of 130 heavily armored ships that carried 30,000 men, for an invasion of England (see "Spain" section later in this chapter). In expedition after expedition, Portuguese ships inched their way down the African coast. When Essex returned to England, Elizabeth reluctantly withdrew her patronage from him. When Richard of York was killed in 1460, his son, Edward (14421483), continued the campaign against the Lancasters. He had the boy trained in Spanish customs and politics and even made out a will naming the young Ferdinand as his heir. When Louis died in 1515, Francis became king. Mary Tudor (15161558; ruled 155358) took the throne as Queen Mary I in 1553, after Jane Grey's nine-day reign. Practicing Jews were segregated and forced to wear an identifying badge. Elyot's dictionary (1538) was the first to provide English equivalents for all the words in the classical Latin vocabulary. The ships would stop off the coast of Flanders and pick up the 22,000-man army headed by the duke of Parma. For about twenty years the Netherlands maintained virtual control of Brazil and its sugar production, before being thrown out by an increasingly independent Brazilian population. But Corts wanted more treasures, and over the next two years he massacred the Aztec, finally destroying Tenochtitln in 1521. In 1567 Philip introduced the Spanish Inquisition in the Netherlands and sent Fernando lvarez de Toledo, duke of Alba (c. 15071582), to crush the revolt. Nevertheless, she followed the religious policies of her father and brother. It helped shape world history as a whole, by giving rise to early forms of representative government. Cao Cao Statutes (laws) passed by the Reformation Parliament in 1533 and 1534 named the king Supreme Head of the Church and cut all ties with the papacy. Henry's wife, the strong and determined Margaret of Anjou (14301483), gathered those loyal to the house of Lancaster and asked them to support the king. 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